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Feminists have disagreed Church teachings and have worked together with a coalition of American nuns to lead the Church to consider the ordination of women.[1] They stated that many of the major Church documents were supposedly full of anti-female prejudice and a number of studies were conducted to discover how this alleged prejudice developed when it was deemed contrary to the openness of Jesus.[1] These events led Pope John Paul II to issue the 1988 encyclical Mulieris Dignitatem (On the Dignity of Women), which declared that women had a different, yet equally important role in the Church.[2][3] Contents 1 "New feminism" 2 Role of women in the family 3 Attitudes toward women 4 Marriage 5 Reproductive issues 5.1 Contraception 5.2 Abortion 6 Role of women in the Church 6.1 Ordination of women 7 References 8 Sources "New feminism" This section requires expansion. John Paul II's “new feminism” places an emphasis on the maternal role of women and the complementarity model.[4] Role of women in the family This section requires expansion. Attitudes toward women The teachings of the Church were also used to "establish[...] the status of women under the law".[5] According to historian Shulamith Shahar, "[s]ome historians hold that the Church played a considerable part in fostering the inferior status of women in medieval society in general" by providing a "moral justification" for male superiority and by accepting practices such as wife-beating.[6] Despite these laws, some women, particularly abbesses, gained powers that were never available to women in previous Roman or Germanic societies.[7] Although these teachings emboldened secular authorities to give women fewer rights than men, they also helped form the concept of chivalry.[8] Chivalry was influenced by a new Church attitude towards Mary, the mother of Jesus.[9] This "ambivalence about women's very nature" was shared by most major religions in the Western world.[10] Marriage Main article: Catholic marriage Main article: Christian views of divorce#Roman Catholic Church Divorce in the ancient world left many women in dire economic and social straits[citation needed]. In the Roman Empire, husbands were allowed to leave their wife, but wives were denied a reciprocal right.[11][12] Early Church Fathers pointed to the Gospel of Mark, which describes Jesus labelling men or women who divorced and remarried as adulterers. Gregory of Nazianzus wrote vehemently against the practice of punishing women who committed adultery while overlooking the same acts by men. Married women were attracted to the Christian ideal that men and women shared the same obligatory moral code. Women often converted first and introduced the religion to their social network; it was in this way that the religion often spread to the upper classes of society.[13] As the Church gained greater influence in European society, its teachings were occasionally codified into law. Church teaching heavily influenced the legal concept of marriage.[14] During the Gregorian Reform of the 11th century, the Church developed and codified a view of marriage as a sacrament.[15] In a departure from societal norms, Church law required the consent of both parties before a marriage could be performed[11] and established a minimum age for marriage.[16] The elevation of marriage to a sacrament also made the union a binding contract, with dissolutions overseen by Church authorities.[17][18] Under canon law, spouses could be granted a "divorce a mensa et thoro" ("divorce from bed-and-board"). The husband and wife physically separated and were forbidden to live or cohabit together; but their marital relationship did not fully terminate.[19] Alternatively, Church laws permitted spouses to petition for an annulment with proof that essential conditions for contracting a valid marriage were absent. Ecclesiastical courts would grant a "divorce a vinculo matrimonii", or "divorce from all the bonds of marriage",–essentially ruling that the marriage had never taken place–when presented evidence that the marriage had been invalid from its start.[20][21][22] Although the Church abandoned tradition to allow women the same rights as men to dissolve a marriage,[11][12] in practice, at least throughout the Middle Ages, when an accusation of infidelity was made, men were granted dissolutions more frequently than women.[23] Over time, Church interpretation of a woman's role in marriage has changed.[citation needed] Church teachings have always affirmed that wives should be "subordinate" to their husbands.[citation needed] This is rooted in several Biblical passages, such as "Let wives also be subject in everything to their husbands" (Eph. 5:24). In modern times, this teaching has been the subject of much controversy, with many scholars decrying the perceived discrimination against women.[citation needed] In <year>, Pope John Paul II clarified that "subordinate" should be defined as a " "mutual subjection out of reverence for Christ"[citation needed] and asserted that "the matrimonial union requires respect for and perfection of the true personal subjectivity of both of them. The woman cannot be made the object of dominion and male possession (MD 10)."[citation needed] Reproductive issues Contraception Main article: Christian views on contraception#Roman Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church is morally opposed to contraception and orgasmic acts outside of the context of marital intercourse. This belief dates back to the first centuries of Christianity.[24] Such acts are considered illicit mortal sins, with the belief that all licit sexual acts must be open to procreation. The sexual revolution of the 1960s precipitated Pope Paul VI's 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae (On Human Life) which rejected the use of contraception, including sterilization, claiming these work against the intimate relationship and moral order of husband and wife by directly opposing God's will.[25] It approved Natural Family Planning as a legitimate means to limit family size.[25] The only form of birth control permitted is abstinence. Modern scientific methods of "periodic abstinence" such as Natural Family Planning (NFP) were counted as a form of abstinence by Pope Paul VI in his 1968 encyclical Humanae Vitae.[26] The following is the condemnation of contraception: Therefore We base Our words on the first principles of a human and Christian doctrine of marriage when We are obliged once more to declare that the direct interruption of the generative process already begun and, above all, all direct abortion, even for therapeutic reasons, are to be absolutely excluded as lawful means of regulating the number of children. Equally to be condemned, as the magisterium of the Church has affirmed on many occasions, is direct sterilization, whether of the man or of the woman, whether permanent or temporary. Similarly excluded is any action which either before, at the moment of, or after sexual intercourse, is specifically intended to prevent procreation—whether as an end or as a means. The Church's rejection of the use of condoms has provoked criticism, especially with respect to countries where the incidence of AIDS and HIV has reached epidemic proportions. The Church maintains that in countries like Kenya and Uganda, where behavioral changes are encouraged alongside condom use, greater progress in controlling the disease has been made than in those countries solely promoting condoms.[27][28] A number of other documents provide more insight into the Church's position on contraception. The commission appointed to study the question in the years leading up to Humanae Vitae issued two reports, a majority report explaining why the Church could change its teaching on contraception, and a minority report which explains the reasons for upholding the traditional Christian view on contraception.[29] In 1997, the Vatican released a document entitled "Vademecum for Confessors" (2:4) which states "[t]he Church has always taught the intrinsic evil of contraception."[30] Furthermore, many Church Fathers condemned the use of contraception.[31][32] The 1987 document Donum Vitae opposes in-vitro fertilization on grounds that it is harmful to embryos. Later on, the 2008 instruction Dignitas Personae denounces embryonic manipulations and new methods of contraception. Other Catholics have voiced significant disagreement with the Church's stance on contraception.[33] The Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops issued probably the most heavily dissenting document, the Winnipeg Statement. In it, the bishops argued that many Catholics found it very difficult, if not sometimes impossible, to obey Humanae Vitae. Additionally, they reasserted the Catholic principle of primacy of conscience.[34] Theologians such as Charles Curran have also criticized the stance of Humanae Vitae on artificial birth control. According to the American Enterprise Institute, 78% of Catholics say they believe the church should allow Catholics to use birth control.[35] Abortion Main article: Catholic Church and abortion The Roman Catholic Church opposes all forms of abortion procedures whose intended and primary purpose is to destroy an embryo, blastocyst, zygote or fetus. Catholics who support this position say that it is based on a belief in the equality of all human life, and that human life begins at conception. 'Indirect abortion,' by which Catholic jurists mean a particular procedure in the case of ectopic pregnancy where the death of the fetus is said to be a secondary effect of the procedure, may be permissible. Catholics who procure abortion are considered to be automatically excommunicated, as per Canon 1398 of the Latin Rite Code of Canon Law or Canon 1450 §2 of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches. The Catholic Church regards abortion as a 'moral evil'.[36] Abortion was condemned by the Church as early as the first century, again in the fourteenth century and again in 1995 with Pope John Paul II's encyclical Evangelium Vitae (Gospel of Life).[37] This encyclical condemned the "culture of death" which the pope often used to describe the societal embrace of contraception, abortion, euthanasia, suicide, capital punishment, and genocide.[37][38] Role of women in the Church This section requires expansion. Catholic lay women are increasingly called to play important roles in the Catholic Church; this trend is particularly strong in the United States.[39] In his letter, Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, John Paul II writes: "The presence and the role of women in the life and mission of the Church, although not linked to the ministerial priesthood, remain absolutely necessary and irreplaceable. As the Declaration Inter Insigniores points out, 'The Church desires that Christian women should become fully aware of the greatness of their mission: today their role is of capital importance both for the renewal and humanization of society and for the rediscovery by believers of the true face of the Church' " ( No. 10). Ordination of women Main article: Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women The Catholic Church doctrine on the ordination of women, as expressed in the current canon law and the Catechism of the Catholic Church, is that: "Only a baptized man (In Latin, vir) validly receives sacred ordination."[40] Insofar as priestly and episcopal ordination are concerned, the Church teaches that this requirement is a matter of divine law, and thus doctrinal.[41] The requirement that only males can receive ordination to the diaconate has not been promulgated as doctrinal by the Church's magisterium, though it is clearly at least a requirement according to canon law.[42][43] The reservation of priestly ordination to men is perhaps the sorest spot among contemporary critics of the Catholic Church’s treatment of women.[44] Several Protestant religious traditions have authorized women ministers and preachers. Many churches in the Anglican Communion already permit women to serve at the altar. The Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox are committed to an exclusively male priesthood and these two churches comprise three fourths of all Christians in the world. In 1976, the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith discussed the issue of the ordination of women and issued a Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood which concluded that for various doctrinal, theological, and historical reasons, the Church "... does not consider herself authorized to admit women to priestly ordination". The most important reasons stated were first, the Church's determination to remain faithful to its constant tradition, second, its fidelity to Christ's will, and third, the idea of male representation due to the "sacramental nature" of the priesthood. The Biblical Commission, an advisory commission that was to study the exclusion of women from the ministerial priesthood from a biblical perspective, had three opposing findings. They were, "that the New Testament does not settle in a clear way... whether women can be ordained as priests, [that] scriptural grounds alone are not enough to exclude the possibility of ordaining women, [and that] Christ's plan would not be transgressed by permitting the ordination of women."[45] In recent years, responding to questions about the matter, the Church has issued a number of documents repeating the same position.[46] In 1994, Pope John Paul II declared the question closed in his letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, stating: "Wherefore, in order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance…I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."[47] Cardinal Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI) too has reiterated that the church teaching regarding women’s ordination is “founded on the written Word of God, and from the beginning constantly preserved and applied in the Tradition of the Church, it has been set forth infallibly by the ordinary and universal Magisterium.” In 1994 the encyclical Ordinatio Sacerdotalis (On Ordination to the Priesthood) further explained that the Church follows the example of Jesus, who chose only men for the specific priestly duty.[48][49][50] References ^ a b Bokenkotter, pp. 465–466. ^ John Paul II, Pope (1988). "Mulieris Dignitatem". Vatican. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_15081988_mulieris-dignitatem_en.html. Retrieved 21 February 2008.  ^ Bokenkotter, p. 467. ^ Curran, Charles E. (2008). Catholic moral theology in the United States: a history. Georgetown University Press. p. 214. http://books.google.com/books?id=enB4otKhEFwC&pg=PA214&dq=%22Catholic+Church%22+%22role+of+women%22+family&hl=en&ei=0ZwHTrKWC4OWsgPO4MnYDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Church%22%20%22role%20of%20women%22%20family&f=false.  ^ Power (1995), pp. 1-2. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 88. "The ecclesiastical conception of the inferior status of women, deriving from Creation, her role in Original Sin and her subjugation to man, provided both direct and indirect justification for her inferior standing in the family and in society in medieval civilization. It was not the Church which induced husbands to beat their wives, but it not only accepted this custom after the event, if it was not carried to excess, but, by proclaiming the superiority of man, also supplied its moral justification." ^ Shahar (2003), p. 12. ^ Power (1995), p. 2. ^ Shahar (2003), p. 25. ^ Bitel (2002), p. 102. ^ a b c Witte (1997), p. 20. ^ a b Witte (1997), p. 25. ^ Chadwick (1990), pp. 58–59. ^ Power (1995), pp. 1–2. ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named witte23; see Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text ^ Shahar (2003), p. 33. ^ Witte (1997), p. 29. ^ Witte (1997), p. 36. ^ Kent's Commentaries on American Law, p. 125, n. 1 (14th ed. 1896). ^ W. Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 428 (Legal Classics Library spec. ed. 1984). ^ Kent's Commentaries on American Law, p. 1225, n. 1. ^ E.Coke, Institutes of the Laws of England, 235 (Legal Classics Library spec. ed. 1985). ^ Shahar (2003), p. 18. ^ http://www.catholic.com/library/Contraception_and_Sterilization.asp ^ a b Paul VI, Pope (1968). "Humanae Vitae". Vatican. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html. Retrieved 2 February 2008.  ^ "Humanae Vitae: Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Regulation of Birth, July 25, 1968". The Vatican. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html. Retrieved 2006-10-01.  ^ Dugger, Carol (18 May 2006). "Why is Kenya's AIDS rate plummeting?". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/05/18/news/aids.php. Retrieved 21 February 2008.  ^ Wilson, Brenda (4 May 2004). "Study: Verbal Warnings Helped Curb AIDS in Uganda". National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1869907. Retrieved 15 August 2008.  ^ Minority Report ^ Vademecum ^ This Rock Magazine: The Fathers Know Best ^ Fr. Haydon ^ A summary and restatement of the debate is available in Roderick Hindery. "The Evolution of Freedom as Catholicity in Catholic Ethics." Anxiety, Guilt, and Freedom. Eds. Benjamin Hubbard and Brad Starr, UPA, 1990. ^ "Canadian Bishops' Statement on the Encyclical "Humanae Vitae"". http://www.catholic-legate.com/articles/winnipeg.html. Retrieved 2006-10-02.  ^ AEI - Short Publications - In Today's Environment, Contraception Could Become a Big Issue ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church 2271. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 27, p. 154, pp. 493–494. ^ "The Death Penalty Pro and Con: The Pope's Statement". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/angel/procon/popestate.html. Retrieved 12 June 2008.  ^ Wessinger, Catherine (1996). Religious institutions and women's leadership: new roles inside the mainstream. University of South Carolina Press. p. 21. http://books.google.com/books?id=uAkrJqbaPJQC&pg=PA21&dq=%22Catholic+Church%22+women&hl=en&ei=wYYGTuWcF5PUtQOn1a3WDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Church%22%20women&f=false.  ^ Codex Iruis Canonici canon 1024, c.f. Catechism of the Catholic Church 1577 ^ "The Catholic Church has never felt that priestly or episcopal ordination can be validly conferred on women," Inter Insigniores, October 15, 1976, section 1 ^ Canonical Implications of Ordaining Women to the Permanent Diaconate, Canon Law Society of America, 1995. ^ Commentary by the Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on the Declaration Inter Insigniores. ^ Bokenkotter, Thomas (2005). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Random House Digital, Inc.. p. 487. http://books.google.com/books?id=DISK1e7JXA8C&pg=PA487&dq=%22Catholic+Church%22+women&hl=en&ei=o4cGTq7FCYLAsAOGxajUDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q=%22Catholic%20Church%22%20women&f=false.  ^ Pierre, Simone M. The Struggle to Serve: the Ordination of Women in the Roman Catholic Church. Jefferson: McFarland and Company, Inc., 1994. ^ Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith: Inter Insigniores, October 15, 1976; Pope John Paul II: Apostolic Letter Ordinatio Sacerdotalis, May 22, 1994; Pope John Paul II: Apostolic Letter Mulieris Dignitatem, August 15, 1988. ^ John Paul II in Ordinatio Sacerdotalis , c.f. Apostolic Exhortation Christifideles Laici (30 December 1988), 31 ^ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Benedict180; see Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text ^ John Paul II, Pope (22 May 1994). "Ordinatio Sacerdotalis". Vatican. http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html. Retrieved 2 February 2008.  ^ Cowell, Alan (31 May 1994). "Pope Rules Out Debate On Making Women Priests". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F05E7DE133BF932A05756C0A962958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved 12 February 2008.  Sources Bitel, Lisa (2002), Women in early medieval Europe, 400-1100, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521592070  Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004), A Concise History of the Catholic Church, Doubleday, ISBN 0385505841  Chadwick, Henry (1990), "The Early Christian Community", in John McManners, The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198229283  Power, Eileen (1995), Postand, Michael Moissey, ed., Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521595568  Shahar, Shulamith (2003), The Fourth Estate: A History of Women in the Middle Ages, New York: Routledge  Witte, John (1997), From Sacrament to Contract: Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition, Louisvill, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 9780664255435